Over two thirds of those living in absolute poverty are women (UNDP, 1998). As noted earlier, women are very heavily concentrated in the most marginal survival enterprises (often working at home) and in wage employment in secondary labour markets that are characterised by low skills and high turnover. In Sub-Saharan Africa, they also undertake the bulk of agricultural production. The 'training crisis' is, therefore, overwhelmingly linked to the economic and social vulnerability of women and particularly the multiple constraints that prevent them from exploiting training opportunities.
In all societies, there are four basic institutional arenas - the market, state, community and the household. Each arena is characterised by specific rules, norms and practices which determine structures of entitlements and disentitlements for individuals and groups of individuals. There has been a pervasive failure to ground training policies and practices for women on a sound understanding of these institutional processes. More innovative training, especially in 'non-traditional areas,' has frequently failed to achieve significant and sustainable impacts precisely because it challenges "the norms of gender propriety which constitutes a risk which poorer households are unwilling to take on" (Kabeer, 1997:5). The focus of most training on productivity has 'redistributive connotations' that are threatening to gender relations.
Poor women are already "hemmed in by a complex bundle of risks" which seriously limits their degree of individual 'agency' with respect to most decisions that affect their own well being and that of their children and other household members. However, as far as training is concerned, the degree of female agency varies very considerably between regions and countries. It is especially limited in the 'patriarchal belt' that stretches across North Africa, the Middle and Near East and South Asia. The 'invisibility' of women in these regions is acute. But is also the case that nearly one-third of households in the developing world as a whole are female-headed. While women in these households are much freer to decide what education and training is desirable for themselves and their dependants, higher levels of poverty in this type of household may prevent women from availing themselves of training opportunities.(10)
EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING PAPERS 43 Learning to change: Skills development among the economically vulnerable and socially excluded in developing countries Paul Bennell Employment and Training Department International Labour Office Geneva First published 1999
To learn more about this author, visit International Labour Organization's Website.
Like this article? Share it with your friends
 |
Related Businesses - Evan Elite Authors |
|
The Evan Elite Authors program is currently in beta phase. For details please contact us.
|
|
|
|
![[Get Copyright Permissions]](http://license.icopyright.net/images/icopy-w.gif){kind=small}
