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Humans all over the world differentiate each other by place of birth, ethnicity, race, skin color, language, religion and so forth. Do we ever stop to think for a moment and ask this question to ourselves, “how different we really are?

Regardless of external features that are used to recognize and categorize people, we really are all kin.

Racial categories recognized by society are not reflected at the genetic level. Study on human DNA and human genetic variation; from people of different regions of the world show that we are genetically 99.9% the same.

J. Craig Venter, former head of the Celera Genomics Corporation in Rockville, and other researchers say that the traits most commonly used to distinguish one race from another, like skin and eye color, or the width of the nose, are traits controlled by a relatively few number of genes, and thus have been able to change rapidly in response to extreme environmental pressures during the short course of Homo sapiens history.

Variations in Skin Color

Changes in skin pigmentation level occurred as populations near equator evolved darker skin, to protect against ultraviolet radiation, while people in northern latitudes evolved pale skin, the better to produce vitamin D from pale sunlight.

Biologists have suggested that there is strong correlation between pigmentation and amount of sunlight. Pigmentation differences are a result of natural selection imposed by different levels of UV light in different places.

Positive selections for lighter skin are due to the higher absorption of vitamin D from exposure to less sunlight. The evolutionary constraint of keeping skin dark decreased proportionally in the Northern Hemisphere population, resulting in a range of skin tones.

Most people's skin darkens when exposed to UV light/sunlight, giving them more protection against high levels of exposure to sun. Dark-skinned people, who produce more skin-protecting eumelanin, have a greater protection against sunburnand the development ofmelanoma, a potentially deadly form ofskin cancer.

Therefore, difference in range of skin color, black, brown, yellow and white are due to the adaptation of various environmental conditions people migrated too.




Africa - Origination of Human Race

Modern studies show evidence that early humans originated in Africa some 200,000 years ago and about 60 000 years ago humans left Africa and began their journey to discover and populate the world. The great genetic diversity of African population made it hard to accurately predict where in Africa humans might have originated. It might take more study and research to conclude whether we come from southern or eastern Africa.

A team from Stanford University led by postdoctoral geneticist Brenna Henn of the Department of Genetics and biology Professor Marcus Feldman has found that modern humans likely originated in southern Africa.

The Bushmen hunter-gatherers of the Kalahari Desert who speak one of the Khoisan languages characterized by the presence of clicking sound have the greatest genetic diversity in theirDNA of any other group of people in Africa and the world. Therefore they are the most direct descendants of our oldest ancestors.

copyright © South African tourism - The San People or Bushmen of South Africa, also known as the Khoisan.

High genetic diversity is generally accepted as a mark of old age of a population, and Africans in general have the greatest genetic diversity of all peoples, indicating that the human race originated on that continent.

To come to this conclusion, the researchers analyzed the largest dataset to date for hunter-gatherer populations. The study appeared online on March 7 in theProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

However, not all agree with geneticist Brenna M. Henn’s reasoning. Anthropologist Henry C. Harpending of the University of Utah said that “though the ancestors of the Khoisan-speaking people may have been the first modern human, that doesn’t necessarily mean that modern humans originated in southern Africa”.

"These Khoisan were all over southern Africa and east Africa," Harpending said. Southern Africa "is just the only place they are left. They were wiped out everyplace else”. Paleoanthropologists generally argue that modern humans originated in eastern Africa because that is where the earliest bones are found. Geneticists, however, say that is simply the area that provides the best preservation of fossils.

Mitochondrial DNA

Each person's mitochondrial genome is inherited from his or her mother, all mitochondrial lineages are maternal.

Mitochondrial DNA was used to discover the age of the famous “Mitochondrial Eve,” the most recent maternal ancestor of everyone alive today.

“Mitochondrial Eve” was an African woman who lived about 200,000 years ago. Paleontology also provides corroborating evidence that our species originated on this continent approximately 200,000 years ago.

The migrations about 60,000 years ago led modern humans on their epic journeys to populate the world. This has been the primary focus of anthropological genetic research, but little is known about the demographic history of our species over the previous 140,000 years in Africa. Therefore, the current study returns the focus to Africa and in doing so refines our understanding of early modern Homo sapiens history.

Migration Pattern

Humans appear to have occupied all of Africa about 150,000 years ago, moved out of Africa approximately 60,000 years ago, and had spread acrossAsia, Europe and Australia around 40,000 to 50,000 years ago.

Discoveries at two ancient sites, artifacts from Malakunanja and fossils from Lake Mungo indicated that modern humans followed a coastal route along southern Asia to reach Australia.

Early humans migrated due to many factors such as changing climate and landscape and inadequate food supply.

Aborigines are the indigenous people of Australia. The word "aboriginal" means "the first" or "earliest known". The word was first used in Italy and Greece to describe people who lived there, natives or old inhabitants, not newcomers, or invaders.

There are about 500 different Aboriginal peoples in Australia, each with their own language and territory and usually made up of a large number of separate clans.


















Asian Ancestry

The ancestors of the contemporary population of China, Japan and other East Asian countries had migrated from India, according to a research study conducted by a team of scientists.

The scientific study and analysis of human genetic diversity in Asia were conducted by a group of over 90 scientists from the Human Genome Organization. These 90 scientists came from 10 Asian countries, India, China, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and Thailand. The team reached the conclusions after examining genetic data from 1,928 people representing 73 populations across Asia.

The Minister of State for Science and Technology, Prithviraj Chavan of India, disclosed this information while addressing a press conference in New Delhi. He said that the findings of this research would help in understanding of migratory patterns of human beings and allied social trends.

"The study shows that single entry or single migration - a wave of people, perhaps 40,000 to 50,000 years, migrated from Africa along the Indian coastal belt up to south India and it gradually migrated northwards and entire east Asian population including China up to Japan, Thailand, Indonesia all people seems to have gone from south India," said Prithviraj Chavan.

This picture tries to represent the diverse group of people in India by Vikas Kamat.

The study on Asian ancestry is one of pattern followed by our ancestors, further study on the migration pattern would reveal more about this journey to colonize the world.

The migration pattern as mentioned earlier was from Asia to Europe to Australia and to other parts of the world.

Since the early human ‘Out of Africa’ migration, people have been on move to resettle in other parts of the world for better life opportunities. The various reasons for migration have been quite similar for centuries, looking for more viable economy and improving the standard of living.

The hunter and gatherer population migration possibly initiated due to inadequate food supply because of population increase and changes in weather and climate such as prolonged drought, floods, severe storm, volcanic eruptions etc.

A bushman of the Kalahari teaches his son to hunt with bow and arrow. Picture: AAP Image/Louise Gubb/ The Image WorksSource:AAP

Long-term migration patterns have been shaped by climate change. A drought could have turned fertile land into a desert that would drive the population to find a new home.

Changes in sea level could have revealed large stretches of coastal land. Massive sections of frozen ocean that occurred during the most recent ice age gave humans access to parts of the world they might not otherwise have reached.

Agriculture had been the basis of human civilization from the hunter and gatherer nomadic population to practicing farming methods of survival. Agricultural revolution started about 10,000 years ago where it supported larger population with food and occupied less land space. The success of agriculture effectively ended the widespread constant human migrations that were part of the nomadic hunter lifestyle.

The end of constant migration and the ability to support larger populations led to the creation of cities, governments, organized religions, monetary systems and militaries, it was the foundation of our lifestyle, today. None of these would be possible with a nomadic population.

Humans still migrated after the development of farming, but it was no longer the central aspect of their lives. The rate of migration reduced but the basic reason for migration still remained food and climate. People would migrate to areas of better fertile land. Areas that had more resources such as coasts and rivers, which provided fish and fertile land, were almost always settled first.

Harsh climate shifts and weather pattern such as drought,floods remained another reason for migration.

Modern migrations are mainly due to economic patterns. People are always seeking better economic opportunities. Since the Industrial Revolution, few people grow and harvest the food they eat, it is purchased instead. Instead of moving to where the food is, people move to where the money is.




Other reasons of migration in this modern age are again climate conditions, war and politics and human desire. Natural disasters, such as tsunami, massive flooding, drought etc, destroy communities and compel people to resettle in a new location, normally within the same country. War and politics can be traced to population pressure usually deals with migration of refugees to nearby countries. Human desire to explore and colonize the world even when not driven by hunger, politics or economics, they still migrate due to personal preferences.

Conclusion

The great human migration eventually led the descendants of small group of people to occupy far areas of earth. From one person about 200,000 years ago to approximately 6,852,472,823 people now. World has become a smaller place to live in with the introduction of communication technologies, such as fiber optics, telephone, mobile phones, internet, video calls, etc, we reach and connect to our families in other parts of the world. Study, research and development in this information age has given us knowledge on about our past, who we are and where we came from. Some development in technology has made human life much easier than it was hundreds of years ago. Our part in all this is to accept the facts and change our thoughts about our race. To make our society and the world structured by generations of people a much better and peaceful place to live in.

Author: Ryan Baidya, PhD, MBA, is an educator, writer and entrepreneur. He is also author of Biopreneur: The Molecular Millionaire. Currently teaches MBA and Bio-business related courses at the California Takshila University. Sidharta Samy is a student at California Takshila University.


The Emergence of Man

Geology	Archeology	Years
Middle Pleistocene middle period of most recent epoch	Lower Paleolithic Oldest period of Old Stone Age	200 000	First humans in Africa
Upper Pleistocene Latest period of most recent epoch	Last Ice Age	60 000 40 000 30 000 20 000	Out of Africa, early human migration to other parts of the world, Asia, Europe, Australia Asian hunters cross the Bering Land Bridge to populate the new world Oldest known written record, lunar notations on bone, in Europe Man reaches Australia First artists decorate walls and ceilings of caves in France and Spain Figurines sculpted for nature worship Invention of needles made sewing possible
Holocene Present epoch	Neolithic New Stone Age	10 000 9000 8000 7000	Introduction of agriculture and domestication of animals Sheep domesticated in Near East Dogs domesticated in North America Jericho, oldest known city was settled Goat Domesticated in Persia Cultivation of crops, wheat and barley in near East Village life grows in Near East

Continued

Geology	Archeology	Years B.C
Holocene Present epoch continued	Neolithic New Stone Age	7000 6000 4000 3500 3000 2500 2400 2000 1500 1400 1000 900 800 700 200 0	Catal Huyuk, now known as Turkey, became the largest city Farming replaced hunting in Europe Copper used in trade in Mediterranean Sail propelled boats used in Egypt First writing, pictographic, composed Near East Bronze used to make tools Near East Pyramids Built in Egypt Cities built in Indus Valley Stonehenge, ancient stone monuments, begun in England Domestication of chicken and elephants in Indus Valley Eskimo culture begins in Bering Strait Herdsmen of Central Asia learn to tame and ride horses Invention of ocean outrigger canoes enabled men to reach pacific islands Bronze sculptures created in China Iron in use Near east Hebrews introduced concept of monotheism Reindeer domesticated in Eurasia Phoenicians develop modern alphabet Celtic culture spread the use of Iron in Europe Rome was founded Epic on Hinduism, Ramayana and Mahabharata written Water wheel invented in Near East Christian Era begins

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